Alexander the Great is one of the most remarkable military leaders in history, known for his conquests that brought down powerful civilizations like the Persian Empire and Ancient Egypt. He gained fame for never losing a battle and for establishing the mightiest empire of his time—the Macedonian Empire. However, it was not destined to outlive its creator. Let’s explore why that was the case.
Alexander enters Babylon. Lebrun, (1664)
The Great and Noble
Alexander the Great, as he is often called, ascended to the throne at the age of 20. Early in his reign, he eliminated political rivals and consolidated all power in his hands. During his lifetime, he led numerous campaigns, expanding his territories from Greece to India. At the age of 32, he died under mysterious circumstances, leaving behind the largest and most influential empire on the world map of his time. Who was to inherit it in the power vacuum that ensued? Did Alexander have any children? In short—yes, he did.
Aristotle teaches young Alexander, 19th-century engraving.
The great commander indeed had one, or perhaps even two, heirs—both boys. The first, known to us as Alexander IV, was his son with his first wife, Roxana. She was the daughter of a Bactrian chieftain, from a historical region in Central Asia that corresponds to parts of modern-day Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan.
He met her during one of his military campaigns. Alexander’s army captured Roxana during an operation in that region. The King of Macedonia fell in love with the young captive, and they married in 327 BC. This is noted in the book “Alexander the Great: A Reader” by Ian Worthington, a professor of ancient history at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia.
Interestingly, some historical sources, including accounts by Plutarch, suggest that the young king could have taken Roxana by force, but instead, he gallantly asked for her hand in marriage. However, Alexander did not live to see the birth of their son; he died in Babylon in 323 BC while Roxana was pregnant.
The marriage of Alexander and Roxana, Sodom (1517)
Secret Connections
The other son, Heracles of Macedon, was born around 327 BC, making him four years older than Alexander IV. He was an illegitimate child from his mistress Barsine, who hailed from a noble Persian family. The noblewoman captivated the young prince not only with her beauty but also with her education and good nature. Some accounts suggest that she was the first woman to capture the future conqueror’s heart, who, in his youth, was indifferent to physical pleasures. Their relationship with Barsine lasted about five years and ended when Alexander married Roxana.
Some modern scholars doubt whether Alexander was truly Heracles’ father, as the commander never officially acknowledged him. However, it is generally accepted in academic circles that Heracles was indeed his biological son.
“Several historians are skeptical about Alexander’s paternity, but I do not share their viewpoint,” commented Joseph Roisman, a professor of classics at Colby College in Maine, USA, to Live Science.
Macedonian feasting with courtesans in the captured Persepolis, painting by G. Simoni, 19th century.
Why They Did Not Become Kings?
After Alexander the Great died from a mysterious illness at the age of 32, the question arose of who would succeed him in the vast empire that stretched from the Balkans to modern-day Pakistan. However, there was no clear understanding of the situation.
On one hand, his wife Roxana was pregnant when her husband passed away (at that time, it was still unknown whether she would give birth to a girl or a boy). On the other hand, the emperor already had a four-year-old son, albeit an illegitimate one. This significantly complicated Heracles of Macedon’s claim to the throne. However, as Mr. Worthington notes, the boy never claimed the inheritance, as he was aware of his “low” status.
The situation was further complicated by the fact that both women—Roxana and Barsine—had Asian roots. This did not sit well with some of Alexander the Great’s soldiers.
“According to the ancient Roman historian Quintus Curtius, both sons were proposed as potential heirs to the throne at a council of generals and cavalry. However, the common soldiers, particularly the infantry, rejected both candidates because their mothers were Asian,” said Carol King, an associate professor of classics at Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada, to Live Science.
The Death of Alexander the Great. Karl Theodor von Piloty (1885)
“And the King is Not Real!”
There was another person who was not immediately mentioned—Philip III Arrhidaeus, Alexander the Great’s half-brother. He was perhaps the only contender for the throne whose life Alexander had spared at the beginning of his reign, as he did not see him as a rival. The fact is, Arrhidaeus was an illegitimate child of King Philip II by a dancer. Moreover, he suffered from a mental disability.
Philip III Arrhidaeus, depicted on a coin
After Alexander the Great’s death, the common Macedonians supported Arrhidaeus’s candidacy, as they did not want a foreigner ruling over them. Thus, he nominally became king, and Alexander IV was considered his co-regent after his birth. However, as Ms. King notes, neither of them could effectively rule: Arrhidaeus due to his mental condition, and the son of Macedon because he was an infant.
As a result, “they all became pawns in the wars of the successors, the powerful generals of Alexander, as they fought each other for control of the empire; and all were killed,” commented Professor King.
Blood for Blood
This political landscape was far from pleasing to Olympias, Alexander the Great’s mother. She could not forgive her husband for his betrayal and always held a grudge against his illegitimate son.
In 317 BC, she became the guardian of the legitimate heir to the throne—Alexander IV. With the help of an army led by a general named Polyperchon, Olympias captured Arrhidaeus and his wife. Soon after, she had them both killed. She placed her six-year-old grandson on the Macedonian throne and ruled in his name.
Roxana with Alexander IV, son of Alexander the Great, by Alessandro Varotari, 17th century.
However, this did not last long. The following year, the general Cassander seized power and condemned Olympias to death by stoning. Alexander the Great’s wife Roxana and their young son were taken captive. And although Cassander effectively controlled the empire as king, he still feared competition. The legitimate heir to the imperial throne was growing up and could assert his claims upon reaching adulthood. To prevent this, Cassander ordered the execution of Alexander IV and his mother Roxana in 309 BC.
Heracles, the illegitimate son of Alexander the Great, was not in a better position either. General Polyperchon captured him and, in an agreement with Cassander, killed the young man shortly after Alexander IV’s death. This is noted in the book “Dividing the Spoils: The War for Alexander the Great’s Empire” by independent historian Robin Waterfield.
The political ambitions of the generals and the absence of a strong leader to unite everyone led to numerous infighting and the rapid decline of the empire created by Alexander the Great. And, to be frank, there is a share of his blame in this.